Research Ideas and Outcomes :
Research Article
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Corresponding author: Étienne Serbe-Kamp (etienne@hirnkastl.science), Jens Bemme (mail@jensbemme.de), Katja Mayer (katjes@abwesend.de)
Academic editor: Isabel Steinhardt
Received: 18 Oct 2022 | Accepted: 17 Jan 2023 | Published: 23 Jan 2023
© 2023 Étienne Serbe-Kamp, Jens Bemme, Daniel Pollak, Katja Mayer
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Serbe-Kamp É, Bemme J, Pollak DJ, Mayer K (2023) Open Citizen Science: fostering open knowledge with participation. Research Ideas and Outcomes 9: e96476. https://doi.org/10.3897/rio.9.e96476
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Citizen Science or community science has been around for a long time. The scope of community involvement in Citizen Science initiatives ranges from short-term data collection to intensive engagement to delve into a research topic together with scientists and/or other volunteers. Although many volunteer researchers have academic training, it is not a prerequisite for participation in research projects. It is important to adhere to scientific standards, which include, above all, transparency with regard to the methodology of data collection and public discussion of the results, and open educational resources (OER). Hereby, Citizen Science is closely linked to Open Science. In our contribution, we will introduce two projects, both developed within the Wikimedia Fellowship Freies Wissen.
The top-down approach: ERGo! An Entomology Research Tool to raise awareness of biodiversity protection.
Inclusion in academia and pressing social problems such as climate change are fundamentally social justice issues. To facilitate early participation in the scientific process on the part of people holding underrepresented identities in science, we develop a Citizen Science initiative based on a low-cost open-source platform (ERGo!) to perform a technique for electrical recordings from insect eyes known as electroretinograms (ERGs) while presenting visual stimuli. Pasadena Unified School District High School students pilot ERG experiments to test the feasibility of this technique as a large-scale Citizen Science initiative. With ERGo!, future Citizen Scientists contribute data to cutting-edge research that monitors insect biodiversity, adaptation, and health in rapidly changing environments caused by monocultures, pesticides, and climate change.
The bottom-up approach: Open cultural data collection. A Citizen Science initiative for regional knowledge curation.
We catalogued the 18th century German magazine ‘Die Gartenlaube’ (in Wikisource) with bibliographic metadata in Wikidata in a project called ‘Die Datenlaube’. We develop collaborative approaches for linked open data methods to produce data sets about historical knowledge. The concept of ‘Open Citizen Science’ offers a methodological baseline for Open Science practises in fields of digital humanities. Scanned documents and structured open metadata revealed open access to historic collections. Through the Wikimedia platforms 'Die Datenlaube' creates possibilities to edit entries, to design own investigations, and to contribute to OER.
Based on the elaboration of the two rather different projects (natural and social sciences, involvement of pupils vs citizens, top-down vs bottom-up), we will discuss similarities and hence the challenges and lessons learned for using and developing Open Science elements in Citizen Science and mutual learning. Furthermore, we will conclude by focusing on the opportunities resulting from the integration of societal expectations in science and vice versa.
Citizen science, Open Science, Open Citizen Science, Open Hardware, Open data, Citizen Data
Citizen Science is an expression of a modern understanding of science that enables social engagement through participatory methods (
Participatory action research (PAR) is the a process by which members of a community, and optionally professional scientists engage in the scientific process to solve a local, place-based problem (
The scope of individual, group or community involvement in participatory science initiatives ranges from short-term data collection or contribution of expertise to intensive engagement. The intensity of this involvement can range from participating in study design to collecting and processing data, but always delving deep into a research topic together with scientists and/or other volunteers.
In the literature on Citizen Science, we find different perspectives on participation in research and the opportunities and challenges associated with it.
The term citizen is somewhat misleading and has been debated for a while (
Although many volunteer researchers have academic training, it is not a prerequisite for participation in research projects. It is important to adhere to scientific standards, which include transparency with regard to the methodology of data collection, public discussion of the results, and open educational resources. Hereby, Citizen Science is closely linked to Open Science. “Open Science is frequently defined as an umbrella term that involves various movements aiming to remove the barriers for sharing any kind of output, resources, methods or tools, at any stage of the research process. As such, open access to publications, open research data, open source software, open collaboration, open peer review, open notebooks, open educational resources, open monographs, Citizen Science, or research crowdfunding, fall into the boundaries of Open Science”*
Comparison table of Citizen Involvement in ERGo! and Digital 'Heimatforschung' / Die Datenlaube
Citizen Involvement in |
ERGo! |
Digital ‘Heimatforschung’ / Die Datenlaube |
Research Design |
Researchers and students discussed the selection of insect species and environmental significance. |
Citizen scientists explored digital sources and methods for their regional studies and science communication. |
Method Design |
Open source DIY hardware and free access to method videos to invite citizens for comments. Stimulation protocols and experimental set-ups change co-creationally over time. |
Use of digital tools and communities of the wikiverse. Open documentation and publication. |
Data Collection and Curation |
Collaboratively with scientists in a workshop or at home with online support. Students uploaded the data via Google Forms or Google Drive. |
Independent research, collaborative editing and discussion. Open publication of data and resulting reflections. |
Data Analysis |
Google Colaboratory analysis scripts were created by researchers and executed online by the students. |
Query design, data visualisation and Linked Open Storytelling using Wikidata Query Service and Scholia |
Communication of Results |
Results were presented in school workshops by the students to the researchers and each other. |
Results were presented in social media, presentations and open access venues. |
Project Governance |
Commenting on open access materials and communication with the ERGo! team |
Independent research and editing in Wikimedia based environments. |
In the following, we will elaborate a detailed description of the fellowship projects, elucidate their impact on Citizen Science, and highlight how opponent approaches can complement their efforts in the future.
One of the most pressing issues of our time is anthropogenic climate change. Climate change will continue to affect worldwide systems during this century at all levels, from small practicalities in day-to-day life to global food security (
Academic science is playing an irreplaceable role in measuring, understanding, and ultimately countering this emergency, regardless of who counts as "academic scientists". Our ability to react and design the right measures depends critically on our ability to track changes. However, the number of professional scientists and their capacity to generate up-to-date maps of biodiversity are naturally limited. As a consequence, we are still in the dark about the full extent of this ongoing extinction event; we simply do not know enough about the current health status of our insects (
While PAR is is often described as the gold standard for research (i.a.
We set out to develop a model for science outreach based on the YPS framework for Citizen Science (
We believe that it is crucial to highlight this community-building as the first and the most important step in our methodology for doing Citizen Science. Only after this intensive networking could we have a vision and a venue to set up our pilot program. Underrepresented minorities in science are systemically excluded from science (
ERGo! aims to create new scientific knowledge using inexpensive and easy to use methodologies. However, the advantage of an in-person workshop like the kind provided by Upward Bound is that we have the opportunity to benefit the participants; to have learning objectives. Our learning objectives for our six students was simple: create 6 full-fledged scientists at the end of six weeks who were competent, experienced, and recognised as scientists (
Simple experiments can create the possibility of large-scale impacts to the public. The Citizen Science organisation “Insektenverein Krefeld'' (
Whereas biology often requires prohibitively expensive equipment, we established ERGo! as a low-cost and open-source experimental platform. Specifically, ERGo! wants to provide Citizen Scientists with DIY electrophysiological tools (
To this end, the ERGo! team developed low-cost hardware (
Preliminary Setup for inexpensive DIY ERG recordings
The ERG is an elegant way to catalog spectral and temporal properties of vision across insect species and to show, for example, that honeybee trichromatic vision differs from human visual sensitivity (Fig.
ERGs present an unusually fruitful source of insights into several fields of biology, from basic scientific questions to essential readouts of environment health, impacts of global climate change, and local pollution. Visual systems can evolve specializations by developing the ability to detect spectral wavelengths that are relevant to their ecological niche. These physiological responses provide a window into visual adaptations, biochemically and anatomically. When these physiological responses are compared across species, we can formulate hypotheses about ecological specialisation and evolutionary relationships (
For more advanced or motivated Citizen Scientists who want to delve deeper into entomology and help to establish ERGo! as a flexible platform for various biology-related experiments, we propose a project to investigate co-evolutionary relationships between insects and plants (
The use cases for ERGo! do not just include a Citizen Science initiative as a readout to monitor and characterise insect populations, but also as a YPS initiative. Indeed, ERGs promise to be a useful tool in the toolbox of conservation biology when used in the context of tracking population changes. Some of the most important kinds of population changes to track are physiological indications of health, particularly among pollinator species. Neonicitinoid (neonic) pesticides are widely considered to be extremely dangerous to humans and the environment (
The first years of ERGo! consisted of research and developement and piloting workshops. The initial ERG measurement prototype, the ERG Spikerbox, was developed in collaboration with Backyard Brains, and was built on a completely-open source technology stack*
The second iteration of this "top-down Citizen Science" initiative will incorporate the insights gained from pilot cohorts into a publically available program, while trying to center the voices of community leaders we met in Pasadena and in other communities into which we will expand. There are so many ways to “center the voices of community leaders” that it is not exactly clear how a Citizen Science initiative must do that. It is crucial to remain in conversation with the Pasadena community so that we can improve, without asking people to perform an egregious amount of uncompensated work. Thus, the second iteration of this top-down Citizen Science will include surveys for teachers, parents, and administrators within PUSD and PCC. These surveys will be short, requiring only a few minutes of time, but will have open ended questions for people to share miscellaneous feedback, as well as contact information for DJP to reach out with any questions/concerns.
In the next iteration, Citizen Scientists will also submit ERG data and assorted metadata (date, location, insect photo) via Google forms, and data will be stored on Google Drive. To scale up engagement with the platform towards that of a global Citizen Science initiative, we will release a detailed tutorial series (similar to *
Taken together, the authors will teach citizens how to use low-cost equipment to perform experiments that were previously exclusive to highly trained scientists with expensive equipment. As a Citizen Science entomology research tool, ERGo! promises to unravel complex environmental phenomena and raise awareness for the immediate necessity of floral and faunal biodiversity protection. ERGo! aims to function as a platform where amateurs and professional scientists can exchange ideas, communicate findings, and develop projects. To make this platform and these findings accessible to Citizen Scientists of all socioeconomic statuses, the team is currently working to incorporate these elements in an free educational application (*
The second Citizen Science initiative to be described here is more of a bundle of projects working with open cultural data for “local studies” - “Heimatkunde” or “Heimatforschung” in German. A local interested in the surrounding environment or trained in historical sciences usually works on a voluntary basis in the field of researching local histories. The practices involved hereby are - amongst others - the observation, measurement and documentation of nature and culture for example to construct genealogies or preserve oral histories.
In the project ‘More than cycling: European Heimatforschung – an approach for open data and narratives, including wanderlust research and cycling knowledge’ Jens Bemme’s main objective was to experiment and test the opening of historical accounts of cycling to historical sciences and Citizen Science alike*
The objective of the project was thus to demonstrate how local studies can benefit from Open Science. The concept of “Europäische Heimatforschung” (European local studies) also emphasises the need for international networking and the strengthening of international cooperation for research on European regional mobility history, which is an important basis for transforming the contemporary way we look at mobility and the environment.
Starting in 2019 from systematically collecting regionally available information about “cycling knowledge” and historical accounts of wanderlust in the area of the German Empire during their journeys and visits to archives, libraries and cooperation partners, such as German and other european public libraries, the team dramatically increased the stock of digitised sources, which made it possible to further refine the concept of European local studies. Since this project grew out of an interest, and became more and more systematic over time, we understand it as “bottom-up” Citizen Science, following in particular the “Open Citizen Science”*
Jens describes his method as “long term open data hackathon”*
Hackathons are events for collaborative soft- and hardware development in sprint mode for a few days or longer. Here the research and development is commonly oriented on larger objectives, but still follows individual preferences and curiosity: 1. finding and collecting forgotten cycling knowledge around 1900 in Wikisource link lists and in Wikidata items with the metadata of publications, historic personalities and cyclists associations in Germany and the Baltics (Fig.
Gustav Bauer: female cyclist, advertisement illustration, in: Sächsische Radfahrer-Zeitung, Leipzig 1899, 19. August 1899, p. 344, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Radfahrerin,_1899.svg.
The ‘Datenlaube‘ (“data arbor”) is a Citizen Science project run by volunteers mainly in Dresden and Vienna since 2019*
By digitising, transcribing and making this 19th century German-language family newspaper openly accessible, the team was able to create an important historical source for cultural studies - an open catalogue of Wikisource texts using Wikidata. These travelogues, health and household tips, reviews, reports from the Reichstag, poetry and novels, portraits of places, plants, and people, obituaries – richly illustrated, with sequels, and sometimes told in long-running series of articles with large illustrations (Fig.
Otto Boyde: Sport-Limonade (poster, Dresden, before 1893), photo by Frank Papperitz, 2019, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Otto_Boyde_Dresden.jpg.
These days, both research and teaching in information and library science, as well as librarians themselves are only just discovering the field of 'Wikiverse' - here in particular with regard to digital editions or digital humanities (Fig.
Bernhard Böhm (Ed.): Touren-Buch des Sächsischen Radfahrer-Bundes : umfassend das Königreich Sachsen nebst den angrenzenden Teilen der preußischen Provinzen Schlesien und Sachsen, der thüringischen Staaten, sowie der Königreiche Bayern und Böhmen, Leipzig 1899, SLUB Dresden: http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id407531238.
‘Die Datenlaube’ and its weekly ‘DatenlaubeJam’ digital project meeting brings together diverse participants editing cultural open data in Wikisource and Wikidata especially for historical publications of the Dresden historical society *
Both accounts above - even though based on very different motivations, objectives and types of participation - help us now to reflect and analyse the multifaceted nature of open practices in Citizen Science. Even though both projects were co-creative in the type of participation (
1) Top-down and bottom-up approach to Citizen Science to develop new areas of knowledge
Both projects started from their niches, involving only a few people at the beginning - specialists in their field, be it academic or non-academic. Both teams had to learn a lot about opening the research process, so that not only more people could participate, but also so that reliable knowledge could be produced. Yet, both projects demonstrate how new publics and attention can be gained from niches on the basis of basic open technologies that are accessible to all.
The ERGo! initiative uses a "top-down Citizen Science" approach to study cross-species patterns in photoreceptor sensitivities and to generate unique insights into insect visual ecology. The ERGo! team developed hardware, experimental setup, open-source plug-and-play analysis software, and checked for its feasibility of implementation in a virtual classroom. The ERGo! team chose these students because they had no prior experience with science and had underrepresented identities in science (female, Hispanic/Latinx). ERGo! will proceed to phase two, scaling up toward a global Citizen Science initiative with various research arms investigating basic scientific questions, performing readouts of insect health to study climate change, and local arms for dealing with local questions.
Our primary concern with this project is to make it inclusive for those holding underrepresented identities in science while producing the highest possible quality of data, and developing frameworks along which Citizen Scientists can help tackle large-scale, decentralised problems by focusing on local, place-based manifestations of those problems. The most pressing question facing ERGo! was and is how we could take inspiration from the YPS framework for doing socially-just Citizen Science, especially if ERGo! is a decentralised initiative, and YPS prescribes local and place-based problem formulations and solutions. We described potential use cases for our ERG kit to address environmental racism and climate change by leveraging ERGs as a nonlethal toxicology readout in animals. For climate change, the ultimate non-localised problem, we note that climate change itself manifests in myriad ways throughout the environment, and that ERGs present an inexpensive and compelling source of hard data for presenting as evidence and advocating for change.
2) Data quality and re-usability
To advocate effectively, ERGo!'s data infrastructure will prioritise transparency and high-quality data while putting the analysis process and authorship for publications into the hands of Citizen Scientists*
The project Datenlaube and the open cultural data for local studies initiative took a bottom-up approach to Open Citizen Science (
One further challenge that accompanies both projects is that of data quality and reusability. This is a much discussed topic in the Citizen Science literature (
3) Experiences with open data practices and making participation more open
Ambitious top-down as well as bottom-up Citizen Science projects require constant supervision by professionals (either scientists or data stewards for data curation, analysis, and publication). In order to set up a workflow that facilitates participation and at the same time allows insect identification or initiates linked open story telling, Citizen Science projects must therefore invest in communication and co-creational strategies. These workflows include data cleaning, processing, analysis, and Open Science practices. ERGo! uses free services from Google as a tractable and effective infrastructure for aggregating data from most places around the world, inspecting them for quality assurance, and engaging Citizen Scientists in the scientific process, getting consent to use their work and names in subsequent publications. Because Google connects several of its services to its cloud storage service (“Google Drive”), Python scripting can be implemented for future automated workflows that operate on cloud data. These workflows include
Giving Citizen Scientists access to preliminary data visualisations enhances their degree of engagement with the scientific questions and insights being synthesised by the supervising scientists. Indeed, the ERGo! team expects that questions and comments about self-collected data will be forthcoming from the Citizen Scientists who collected them, thereby changing their role as authors of the publication(s) that arise from their data. Supervising scientists will also play a crucial role in double-checking the quality of the ERG signal data, as well as reviewing the species identification attempts made by the Citizen Scientists. However, it will be crucial for rapid adaptive measures for pressing issues like climate change and biodiversity loss that science and society work and produce knowledge hand in hand.
What can a Citizen Science initiative that addresses biological rather than sociological questions contribute to society? This was the animating question behind the formation of ERGo!. Society’s connection to academia has frayed, especially in recent years due to the emergence of vocal science sceptics whose falsehoods have endangered lives due to vaccine hesitancy during the covid pandemic (
The democratising force of Citizen Science runs counter to the prevailingly exclusive nature of formal academic science because it puts agency to perform and add both to science and to knowledge about the life worlds into the hands of those who have not traditionally had it. Due to a long history of redlining and gerrymandering (among many other harmful policies), Pasadena has a disproportionately high number of private schools per student in the country, with the public high schools majority Latino. ERGo! admitted students to a pilot cohort comprising exclusively Latinx and Asian students from public high schools in Pasadena via the Upward Bound Precollege support program at Pasadena City College (N=7 students, 2 did electroretinogram projects, and 5 did electromyogram, electroencephalogram, and multiunit extracellular electrophysiology projects). By creating a framework for Citizen Scientists who can talk about and advocate for science in their community, we aim to strengthen the connection between science and society. As environmental protection measures need more global support ERGo! hopes to incentivise young citizens to participate actively in research. Eventually, this could improve our understanding of the environment with its complex mechanisms and how Citizen Science can contribute to its conservation.
What can ERGo! learn from open cultural data: ERGo! needs to incorporate Open Science tools for improved transparency and data curation. It will be essential for ERGo! to reach the stage where everyone can contribute with ease while ensuring high data quality. Consequently, digital versions of the experiments for easy accessibility for everyone (similar to Fig.
On the other hand, opening up historical local knowledge could be interesting for schools and higher education in general. Lupschina remarks that students get the skills to write about history on such open platforms, they learn how history is “made”*
Open Citizen Science with open cultural data in Wikimedia environments offers access to digital tools, open data collections, formalised user groups and informal user communities and their collaborative methods and procedures. These approaches are widely underrated in traditional academia. At least Open Science advocates and communities explore and use the open infrastructures of Wikimedia increasingly for reaserch projects, reflections on Open Science methodologies and community building. Nevertheless, academic competition regarding Wikimedia based research approaches, data, methods and software solutions is still low. Some universites research libraries and other GLAM institutions are starting to make profit out of them. For example Wikimedia in residence programmes testify to this*
Both projects - whether top-down or bottom-up - learned how important it is to stick to some general principles when setting the common grounds for Open Citizen Science and creating and maintaining sustainable knowledge production.
Scientists have to get close to citizens to experience what Citizen Science means, to not only get people interested in a subject matter, but also to create a participatory experience which not only benefits the citizens in their daily lives, but also the scientists to better understand the situatedness of local knowledge production.
Questions to ask when co-creating new knowledge areas with open cititzen science: Is the aim to open science for citizens or to open citizen knowledge for science and other fields? Is the focus of the design co-creational and should it be based on citizen experience and data quality: what is interesting and feasible to citizens? What benefits do they expect or were they promised? What expectations of scientific (and other) reuse are guiding their actions? How can data collection and interpretation be organised in line with these expectations?
The objectives and (social) impact of the Citizen Science project should be communicated and documented transparently, project interfaces, results, documentation and educational materials should be easily accessible. While these materials should be open for everyone, it is impossible to communicate all aspects for everyone in an understandable way. On the contrary, priority should be given to design these open materials specifically for target groups, such as students, cyclists, librarians, etc.
Openness and participation need a lot more time than traditional research processes. This needs to be considered and flexibility to adapt to unforeseen challenges should be already planned from the beginning (especially in top-down Citizen Science projects).
Furthermore, Citizen Science needs to go beyond successfully establishing the "'ability to participate' of laypersons in research processes. Rather, all participating actors need to establish a 'capacity for cooperation', whereby both the level of individual professional and non-professional researchers is important as well as the collective level of scientific and other organisations” (
Citizen Science reflects a very broad movement that lives from a diverse set of initiatives led by volunteers and socially engaged scientists. Although Citizen Science is already well known in the scientific community and in research policy, it is still too little known - and taken up by society, the media, and especially local politics - which could benefit most from it. We argue that open practices, such as open tools and infrastructures for data collection and curation e.g. from the 'Wikiverse', provide the grounds for bringing together different types of knowledge and formats of expertise. Showcasing the two Wikimedia Fellowship projects aimed thus to demonstrate how much Citizen Science can benefit from a further opening of methods and data. Open practices thus establish and strengthen the possibilities of social innovation both within science and society to support social change. Environmental and societal challenges we are facing today and in the future could be better tackled on the basis of socially robust evidence and culturally inclusive epistemologies (
One lever for the effectiveness of public investment in Citizen Science is the joint expertise of citizens in their digital practices in their daily lives - for example, reading, querying, evaluating, linking, multiplying, remixing, and subject-didactic use, possibly with the help of automated processes and in topics of their concern. Crowdsourcing data collection, interpretation, and Citizen Science in general can multiply and at the same time democratise these effects of newly generated as well as retro-digitised knowledge corpora (
Both projects show that it pays off to work with already existing open technologies or to develop new ones. For professional scientists and Citizen Scientists alike it is learning by doing, slowly professionalising openness, and reciprocally actively receiving/deepening/enriching/criticising/improving collaborative knowledge production. Academic prestige and the traditional reward system take a back seat with Citizen Science, and motivations are instead guided by environmental and social urgency, curiosity, reflexivity, and creativity. However, such collaborative research processes require more resources for communication between participants and reflexive personal and institutional practices that do justice to these increased and often complex communication efforts. Even though academic prestige and merit is not a priority, these efforts also need adaequate acknowledgement by the communities and visibility to strive further.
By establishing a relational paradigm across the research cycle and among the research fields, Citizen Science benefits from “linking data thinking” in not only creating accessibility, findability and interoperability, but also in re-using citizen generated data*
ESK and DJP want to thank all collaborators of ERGo!. Conceptualisation of the educational application, its feasibility for classroom use, illustrations, video instructions, and analysis tools were developed and tested together with Camila Ortega, Stanislav Mircic, Matthias Meier, Aljoscha Leonhardt, Jahel Guardado, and Zeynep Turan.
The publication of this article was kindly supported by RIO. We would like to thank RIO and Wikimedia Deutschland for enabling this collection.
ESK, JB, and KM were funded by the Open Science Fellows Programme by Wikimedia Deutschland, VolkswagenStiftung and Stifterverband ind 2019/2020. DJP was funded by the Chen Graduate Innovator Award 2021.
ESK, JB, and KM created the first draft of this publication. Furthermore, ESK and DJP elaborated ERGo!. JB elaborated Heimatforschung with open cultural data. KM contributed to the description of Heimatforschung, the discussion of results and conclusion. DJP contributed to language editing. All authors wrote the manuscript together and revised it according to the reviewer suggestions.
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