Threats to R&R and how to achieve it in three research domains. Note that horizontal lines connect different research steps (marked by circles on arrows) with boxes (“threats” and “achieving”) for R&R; light boxes are interconnected because R&R is an incremental process; domains are prototypical only and can overlap with other domains in reality. R&R = reproducibility and replicability; QRPs = questionable research practices; OS = open science.