State of the art and preliminary work
The global and European context
Invasive alien species (IAS) are globally recognised as one of the main direct causes of biodiversity loss, alongside habitat change, overexploitation, climate change and pollution (Roy et al. 2024b). The recent assessment by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) found that over 37,000 alien species have been introduced worldwide, with more than 3,500 being invasive and representing serious threats to biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being (Roy et al. 2024a, Roy et al. 2024b). The global economic costs of biological invasions have been estimated to exceed 1.288 trillion USD over the past few decades, with annual costs reaching at least 26.8 billion USD and increasing approximately threefold every decade (Diagne et al. 2021). The rate of new alien species introductions continues to accelerate across all taxonomic groups and regions worldwide, likely leading to increasingly severe outcomes in the future (Seebens et al. 2026).
Biological invasions are amongst the main threats to European biodiversity, alongside land-use change and overexploitation (Hochkirch et al. 2023). The European Alien Species Information Network (EASIN) documents widespread invasion of European ecosystems, with IAS of EU concern found in all biogeographical regions (Polce et al. 2023). Marine ecosystems face specific challenges, as most EU countries lack dedicated monitoring programmes for marine IAS and the standardisation of monitoring methods remains necessary (Katsanevakis et al. 2023).
The European Union has addressed this challenge through Regulation (EU) No 1143/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council on prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species (hereinafter the "IAS Regulation"). This landmark legislation establishes a comprehensive framework requiring Member States to implement prevention measures, establish surveillance systems, conduct early detection and rapid eradication of newly-detected IAS of Union concern, as well as manage widely spread IAS (European Parliament and Council 2014). The list of IAS of Union concern has increased from an initial 37 species in 2016 to 114 species at present (Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2025/1422), highlighting the evolving nature of biological invasions and the growing scientific evidence base.
However, the effective implementation of the IAS Regulation at the national level faces significant challenges. A comparative assessment of Austria and Romania identified obstacles related to the creation, updating and maintenance of the Union List, distribution of competences influencing national cooperation and coordination, insufficient financial resources and gaps in customs controls and national legislation (Roman and Mauerhofer 2021). Similar implementation challenges have been documented across other EU Member States (Krämer 2021). Germany's experience with developing its first national IAS action plan demonstrated the complexity of coordinating relevant ministries, authorities, scientists and stakeholders in a multi-sector process (Mayer et al. 2023).
The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF), adopted in December 2022, further strengthened the international mandate for IAS management through Target 6, which aims to reduce the rate of introduction and establishment of known or potential IAS by at least 50% by 2030. Achieving this target in protected areas requires coordination with various other Global Biodiversity Framework targets related to tourism, urban development, agriculture and climate change (Hulme et al. 2025, Nita et al. 2025).
Romanian context
Romania, situated at the crossroads of major biogeographical regions (i.e. Continental, Steppic, Alpine, Pannonian and Black Sea) and traversed by the Danube River, one of Europe's most significant corridors for IAS dispersal, faces distinct challenges in IAS management. The country's diverse ecosystems, including the Danube Delta UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, extensive Carpathian forests and Black Sea coastal habitats, harbour rich native biodiversity that is increasingly threatened by biological invasions (Cogalniceanu et al. 2020, Anastasiu et al. 2024, Stanciu et al. 2023). Romania's first comprehensive national-level effort to address IAS management was undertaken through a national project funded under the EU Cohesion Policy's Large Infrastructure Operational Programme (Invasive species management in Romania according to REGULATION (EU) 1143/2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species, project number SMIS 120008). That project produced the first national-scale inventory of alien species, established the web-based surveillance system, developed the Action Plan for Addressing the Priority Pathways of Introduction of Invasive Alien Species (IAS action plan; MMAP (2022)) and implemented a national-scale awareness campaign. At the regional scale, the South European Network for Invasive Alien Species (ESENIAS), coordinated by the Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research (IBER-BAS, Bulgaria), has laid important groundwork for the present project by fostering cross-border scientific cooperation and knowledge exchange on IAS management in south-eastern Europe (Trichkova et al. 2025).
The present project, Consolidarea Sistemului National de Management al Speciilor Alogene Invazive din Romania in Conformitate cu Cerintele UE / Strengthening the National Management System for Invasive Alien Species in Romania in Compliance with EU Requirements (project number SMIS 337191), represents a major scaling-up of Romania's capacity to fulfil its obligations under the IAS Regulation and to contribute to the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 target of reducing by 50% the number of Red List species threatened by IAS. The project is funded by the Ministry of Investments and European Projects under the Sustainable Development Programme (PDD/216, Priority 2, Specific Objective RSO 2.7) for biodiversity conservation to meet the requirements of EU environmental directives and is implemented by the University of Bucharest in partnership with the Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests over a period of 48 months (2026-2029).
Work packages
The project is structured into seven work packages, designed to address all phases of the IAS management cycle, from developing the regulatory framework to surveillance, early detection, inventory, impact assessment, management actions and public engagement. These work packages are interconnected, with data and results flowing logically between them to ensure coherence and integration.
Work package 1: Updating and completing the regulatory framework
Work package 1 forms the policy backbone of the project, addressing the full cycle of strategic planning, monitoring and reporting obligations under EU Regulation 1143/2014. It comprises nine sub-activities that collectively deliver the updated regulatory and strategic framework for IAS management in Romania.
Analysis of monitoring and evaluation methodologies (WP1.1). A systematic review of the monitoring and evaluation methodologies used by other EU Member States in their pathway action plans will be conducted, drawing on scientific literature, administrative reports and questionnaire-based consultations with responsible institutions. The output will be a technical report on transferable best practices for monitoring pathway action plans, published as open-access on the EU Open Research Repository.
Monitoring and evaluation of IAS action plan implementation (WP1.2). The current status of implementation of the IAS action plan objectives and measures will be assessed through analysis of administrative reports, institutional questionnaires (both online and in-person) and field verification visits. This activity will track progress against the baseline established in the first plan iteration.
Efficiency and effectiveness analysis (WP1.3). A cost-effectiveness analysis of resources allocated to IAS management at national and local levels will be conducted, including the organisation of three stakeholder workshops. The output will include a good-practice guide for coordinating IAS management regulations across sectors. This activity is informed by evidence that management expenditure globally remain 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than documented damage costs and that pre-invasion management spending is over 25 times lower than post-invasion expenditure (Cuthbert et al. 2022).
IAS management guide for protected areas (WP1.4). Given the particular vulnerability of natural protected areas to biological invasions, a dedicated management guide will be developed addressing the challenges of prevention, early detection, control and eradication of IAS in protected areas. This guide will cover all stages of the invasion process, with specific recommendations for protected area administrators, in response to the recognition that effective IAS management in protected areas requires coordination across multiple biodiversity targets (Hulme et al. 2025).
Support activities for IAS action plan revision and coordination (WP1.5). A comprehensive evaluation of institutional preparedness at local and county levels for implementing IAS management measures will be conducted through fieldwork. This sub-activity also coordinates the integration of results from all other sub-activities into the revision process, including the inventory of potential funding sources from various programmes.
Revision of the IAS action plan (WP1.6). The pathway action plan will be revised in accordance with the European Commission protocol, incorporating results from all project activities. The revision will address: the strategic vision aligned with the KM-GBF; updated challenges for IAS management; revised measures; cost estimation, including cost-benefit analysis; and four stakeholder consultation workshops. The revised plan will be approved through a Ministerial Order, making it legally binding (Pindaru et al. 2026). The revision process draws on lessons learned from Germany's first pathway action plan development (Mayer et al. 2023) and the broader experience of EU Member States in pathway analysis (Arianoutsou et al. 2021).
Surveillance system update (WP1.7). The existing web-based geographic information system (webGIS) will be upgraded to include all IAS of Union concern (expanded from the initial 49), updated security standards, new functionalities for mobile field data collection and alignment with the latest provisions of Regulation 1143/2014, Article 14(2)(b), requiring systems sufficiently dynamic for rapid detection. The upgrade advances towards interoperability with the community-driven data exchange format for IAS management data (Reyserhove et al. 2022).
Mandatory EU reporting (WP1.8). The project will prepare and submit Romania's second mandatory country report to the European Commission (covering distribution data, surveillance system description, official control systems, eradication measures, management actions, costs and public information), as well as a preliminary version of the third country report.
Work package 2: Inventory and mapping of invasive alien plants
Work package 2 addresses the comprehensive inventory and mapping of alien plant species across Romania through five sub-activities following a logical workflow.
Species list update (WP2.1). The existing list of alien plant species (currently ~ 400 species) (Sirbu et al. 2022, Anastasiu et al. 2024) will be updated to include new records and species of Union concern not yet reported from Romania. Species nomenclature follows the Plants of the World Online (POWO) database strictly. Introduction pathways will be characterised following the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) classification framework, which has shown that ornamental and horticultural activities are the primary introduction pathways for alien plants into Europe (Arianoutsou et al. 2021).
Protocol development (WP2.2). Updated standardised inventory and mapping protocols will be developed in two variants: (i) an intensive survey protocol for IAS of Union concern (listed under Regulation 1143/2014) and IAS of national concern (additionally designated by Romania) and (ii) a reduced-effort survey protocol for all other alien species. The protocols will specify sampling methodologies, data collection standards, equipment requirements and a standardised mobile application for field data recording. A published digital guide will accompany the protocols.
Intensive inventory and mapping (WP2.3). For species of Union and national concern with confirmed presence in Romania, including Ailanthus altissima, Asclepias syriaca, Elodea nuttallii, Heracleum sosnowskyi, Humulus scandens, Impatiens glandulifera, Ludwigia peploides, Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ambrosia tenuifolia, Ambrosia trifida, Cyclachaena xanthiifolia, Phytolacca americana, Phytolacca acinosa and Verbesina encelioides, intensive mapping will be carried out over three years in randomised plots ranging from 25 to 200 m2, depending on habitat and growth form. The invasion risk of Humulus scandens through the Tisa Basin and Danube Corridor has been documented using ensemble distribution modelling and habitat connectivity analysis (Urziceanu et al. 2022), so special attention will be given to the Danube corridor. Pilot technologies will include the deployment of drones with multispectral and hyperspectral cameras and AI-based image recognition algorithms trained to identify spectral signatures of target species, building on advances in remote sensing for invasive plant detection (Roca et al. 2022, Malinowski et al. 2025). In addition, vehicle-mounted high-speed camera systems (CamAlien) will be tested for roadside monitoring of invasive plants along transport corridors, using deep learning for species recognition to enable rapid, large-scale surveys at traffic speed (Dyrmann et al. 2021, Dyrmann et al. 2024, Groom et al. 2025).
Reduced-effort national mapping (WP2.4). All alien plant species on the national list will be mapped at reduced intensity in 10 km × 10 km plots, selected through stratified random sampling across all counties. At least one botanical expert will be assigned per county, with data collected during June-October over three years. Additional data will be gathered through opportunistic sampling, reports from environmental authorities and protected area managers and social media monitoring.
Data validation and EU reporting preparation (WP2.5). All distribution data will be integrated into a GIS database, subjected to rigorous quality control (duplicate removal, GPS coordinate verification, taxonomic validation against POWO) and prepared in the formats required for EU reporting.
Work package 3: Inventory and mapping of invasive alien vertebrates
Work package 3 mirrors the structure of WP2, adapted for vertebrate taxa. The updated species list encompasses approximately 50 alien vertebrate species reported from Romania (Cogalniceanu et al. 2020, Stanescu et al. 2020, Dragan et al. 2024). Intensive mapping targets confirmed IAS of Union and national concern, including fish (e.g. Lepomis gibbosus, Pseudorasbora parva, Gambusia holbrooki, Perccottus glenii, Ameiurus melas), birds (Alopochen aegyptiaca, Threskiornis aethiopicus), mammals (Nyctereutes procyonoides, Procyon lotor, Ondatra zibethicus, Myocastor coypus, Neogale vison) and reptiles (Trachemys scripta). Pilot technologies include motion-activated camera traps, thermal imaging drones, audio recorders with AI-based species identification and AI-powered image analysis of camera-trap data. To ensure interoperability, camera-trap data will be managed following the Camtrap DP open standard for FAIR data exchange and archiving, facilitating large-scale data sharing (Bubnicki et al. 2023). Passive acoustic monitoring combined with automated recognition has been demonstrated to be highly effective for detecting invasive amphibians in Europe, with detection rates exceeding 89% (Bota et al. 2024), providing a model for our acoustic surveillance approach.
Work package 4: Inventory and mapping of invasive alien invertebrates
Work package 4 addresses the most taxonomically diverse group, with approximately 450 alien invertebrate species (marine, freshwater and terrestrial) known from Romania (Băncilă et al. 2022, Popa et al. 2022, Popescu Mirceni et al. 2022, Adam et al. 2023a, Adam et al. 2023b, Popa et al. 2023, Popescu Mirceni et al. 2023). Species of Union and national concern targeted for intensive mapping include freshwater crayfish (Orconectes limosus, Procambarus fallax f. virginalis), the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis), the Chinese pond mussel (Sinanodonta woodiana), the marine blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), the tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and terrestrial species, such as the land planarian Obama nungara. Novel detection technologies include environmental DNA (eDNA)-based monitoring of aquatic species, satellite remote sensing, colonisation panels for sessile marine organisms, pheromone traps for terrestrial invertebrates and automated light traps, equipped with computer vision-based tracking and deep learning for non-lethal monitoring of nocturnal insects (Bjerge et al. 2021, August et al. 2025).
eDNA has emerged as a powerful, non-invasive and cost-effective tool for detecting invasive species at low population densities in aquatic ecosystems (Larson et al. 2020). Active eDNA sampling has been shown to be considerably more cost-effective than conventional methods for detecting invasive freshwater fish (Morris et al. 2024) and eDNA metabarcoding has successfully detected new invasion records, including in Eastern European freshwater systems (Jeunen et al. 2022). Species-specific eDNA assays have been validated for invasive crayfish detection and early warning across multiple European countries (Bommerlund et al. 2023). These approaches will be adapted for the Romanian context, particularly for monitoring the Danube and Black Sea coastal habitats (Preda et al. 2012).
Work package 5: Developing an early detection system
Work package 5 addresses the critical need for early detection of IAS through three complementary approaches. Early detection and rapid response (EDRR) strategies are recognised as one of the most effective ways to manage potential IAS, although their implementation in the EU remains challenging due to the division of regulatory responsibilities between phytosanitary and IAS legislation (de Groot 2020).
Professional early detection network (WP5.1). A national early detection network comprising nine botanical gardens, research stations and research centres will be established and implemented through five stages: (i) assessing the detection capacity of potential network members; (ii) developing a standardised detection protocol for IAS observations; (iii) formalising collaboration through inter-institutional agreements and training in detection equipment operation; (iv) active observations and data integration into project databases; and (v) developing a sustainability plan for the network's long-term operation. This approach aligns with early warning system design principles that emphasise the integration of automated surveillance, warning generation and dissemination to decision-makers (Rainford et al. 2020).
Border control enhancement (WP5.2). Building on the experience from the previous project (SMIS 120008), which revealed that Romanian customs effectively intercept IAS only when correctly declared by importers/exporters, this sub-activity will: inventory all customs points relevant for phytosanitary and environmental controls; create databases of environmental authorities and specialists for customs officers; produce and distribute a printed species identification guide for all IAS of Union and national concern; and establish formal collaboration protocols amongst customs, environmental authorities, phytosanitary services and research institutions. The need for enhanced biosecurity at borders is well documented, with frontline surveillance staff requiring actionable risk information and close collaboration between developers and end-users of early warning systems (Rainford et al. 2020).
Citizen science for early detection (WP5.3). A systematic approach to integrating citizen science into the national IAS surveillance system will be developed by: inventorying existing citizen science platforms used in Romania (e.g. iNaturalist, PlantNet); conducting a sociological analysis of motivations for nature observations and platform use; establishing a data integration workflow for incorporating citizen science observations into mandatory EU reporting; and securing Romania's accession to the GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility) infrastructure through the establishment of an IAS focal point with GBIF publishing rights. Multi-species citizen science platforms have been shown to be a valuable source of information for the early detection of IAS, with citizen science observations documenting the presence of IAS earlier than, or in the same year as, official surveillance databases in 50% of cases (González‐Moreno et al. 2024). The LIFE RIPARIAS Early Alert tool, which aggregates data from diverse GBIF-mediated sources and sends tailored alerts to managers, provides a model for the integration workflow (Noe et al. 2022). Emerging tools that combine citizen science, eDNA, social media data mining and remote sensing are transforming IAS surveillance capabilities (Larson et al. 2020, Dias et al. 2025).
Work package 6: Impact assessment, modelling, and eradication techniques
Work package 6 provides the scientific evidence base for prioritising IAS management actions through three sub-activities:
Species distribution modelling (WP6.1). Current and future distributions will be modelled for all IAS of Union concern using an ensemble modelling approach (BRT, MaxEnt, Random Forest, GLM) applied in two phases. Phase 1 will use existing data from SMIS 120008 to produce preliminary models for the 22 species with confirmed presence. Phase 2 will integrate new field data from this project to refine models for confirmed species and extend predictions to all listed species, including future climate scenarios (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways SSP, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP5-8.5) for 2050 and 2070 using Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) variables. Data will be organised on a 10 km × 10 km grid aligned with the European Environment Agency ETRS89-LAEA reference system. The reproducible WiSDM workflow for standardised IAS risk maps at 1 km2 resolution across Europe provides a methodological template for our approach (Davis et al. 2024).
Impact assessment (WP6.2). A standardised impact assessment will be conducted for 114 species using EICAT and SEICAT protocols (Volery et al. 2020, Kumschick et al. 2023, Probert et al. 2023), supplemented by data from the InvaCost database (Diagne et al. 2020, Diagne et al. 2021). Each target species will be independently evaluated by three assessors, followed by three consensus workshops (for plants, animals and cross-taxa harmonisation). Results will provide the information for the revision of the IAS action plan through a prioritisation ranking, based on ecological, social and economic impacts.
EICAT, adopted as an IUCN standard, provides a robust tool to support the prioritisation and management of non-native species and to monitor progress towards KM-GBF Target 6 (Kumschick et al. 2023). Recent improvements to EICAT guidelines have clarified the distinction between impact severity levels and improved handling of uncertainty (Volery et al. 2020). SEICAT complements EICAT by measuring how alien taxa alter human activities across different constituents of human well-being (Probert et al. 2023). The IPBES Global Impacts Dataset of Invasive Alien Species (GIDIAS), which includes over 22,000 records of impacts linked to EICAT and SEICAT classifications, will serve as a key reference resource (Bacher et al. 2025). The InvaCost database, documenting global economic costs, provides essential supplementary data for cost-benefit analyses within the IAS action plan revision (Diagne et al. 2020, Diagne et al. 2021).
Eradication and control techniques (WP6.3). Practical eradication and control measures will be piloted for six priority species:
Heracleum sosnowskyi. For this species, we will follow the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (EPPO) Standard PM 9/9 (2), including mapping of affected areas, development of eradication plans (manual removal for small areas, chemical treatment with EU-approved herbicides, excluding neonicotinoids for larger areas), two years of treatment application and production of an eradication guide applicable to congeners (Heracleum mantegazzianum, Heracleum persicum);
Ailanthus altissima. We will test chemical control methods using EU-approved herbicides for one of the most widespread IAS of Union concern in Romania and develop guidelines applicable to other invasive woody species;
Trachemys scripta. The species was recently confirmed to have reproductive populations in Romania (Fănaru et al. 2024). To develop an efficient containment protocol, we will combine drone-based and remote-camera nest detection, destroy nests and live-trap mature individuals. The EU trade ban on Trachemys scripta, implemented through Regulation 1143/2014, ceased imports, but had minimal impact on established populations, highlighting the need for active management (Rato et al. 2025);
Procyon lotor. We will document captive populations in zoos, wildlife rehabilitation centres and private collections, alert holders about mandatory sterilisation/castration and produce a prevention guide against population establishment. Adaptive management approaches integrating camera traps and live traps have been demonstrated to be successful for raccoon eradication in Europe (Mazzamuto et al. 2020);
Callinectes sapidus and Eriocheir sinensis. For these species, we will develop documentation for inclusion in commercial fishing permits without quota restriction and produce eradication/control guides. Callinectes sapidus is a highly eurythermal and euryhaline species that has been rapidly expanding across Mediterranean lagoons, with salinity tolerance modelling providing tools for prioritising management areas (Marchessaux et al. 2024).
All eradication/control guides will be published on the Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests website and distributed to the County Environmental Directorates, the Environmental Guard and protected area administrators.
Work package 7: Public awareness and stakeholder engagement
Work package 7 ensures broad dissemination and institutional capacity building through:
Web and social media campaign. A dedicated project website on the Ministry's web portal and social media accounts (Facebook, Instagram) will be maintained throughout the project, aiming to reach at least 5,000 people and gain 2,000 followers. Six press releases will be issued at key project milestones, distributed to 150 institutions.
Educational workshops and materials. Targeted workshops will be organised for environmental authorities, protected area administrators, customs officers and the scientific community to build capacity for IAS identification, reporting and management (Ferreira-Rodríguez et al. 2025). Campaigns addressing the general public and specific stakeholder groups will be designed to align with the EU Biodiversity Strategy's communication objectives, using both traditional and digital media.